The week’s fashion shows, which are known for diversity among the clothing designs and the audience, come just weeks after famed black model Naomi Campbell directed her criticism at the dearth of black models gracing magazine covers.5 Naomi Campbell, who became the first black woman on the covers of French and British Vogue, says discrimination against models of color is still as prevalent today as it was during the 1990s when she first made her mark as one of the world’s most recognizable supermodels and she vehemently believes that the fashion industry has regressed.6
I somewhat agree with Campbell. See the tallies for W, Harper’s Bazaar, Vogue, Marie Claire, Allure, Glamour, Lucky, Elle and Cosmopolitan. (“Ambiguous race” is counted when the models were intentionally meant to be “ambiguously” black/Asian/white or mixed race.)
W
Total number of ads: 103
Total number of black women: 4 (1 was a celebrity, 1 Naomi)
Total number of Asian women: 4
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 1 (ad for KLS)
Total number of fashion spreads: 1
Total number of black women: 0
Total number of Asian women: 0
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 0
Harper's Bazaar
Total number of ads: 112
Total number of black women: 3 (2 were celebrities)
Total number of Asian women: 1
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 1
Total number of fashion spreads: 4
Total number of black women: 0
Total number of Asian women: 0
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 0
Vogue
Total number of ads: 173
Total number of black women: 10 (6 were celebrities)
Total number of Asian women: 3 (1 celebrity)
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 2 (1 celebrity)
Total number of fashion spreads: 4
Total number of black women: 0
Total number of Asian women: 0
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 0
Marie Claire
Total number of ads: 99
Total number of black women: 6 (4 were celebrities)
Total number of Asian women: 2
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 1
Total number of fashion spreads: 2
Total number of black women: 0
Total number of Asian women: 0
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 0
(although they did employ an old Bhutanese man as a "model.")
Allure
Total number of ads: 96
Total number of black women: 5 (2 were celebrities)
Total number of Asian women: 0
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 1
Total number of fashion spreads: 2
Total number of black women: 0
Total number of Asian women: 0
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 0
Glamour
Total number of ads: 91
Total number of black women: 6 (3 were celebrities)
Total number of Asian women: 1
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 4 (2 were celebrities)
Total number of fashion spreads: 2
Total number of black women: 0
Total number of Asian women: 0
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 0
Lucky
Total number of ads: 147
Total number of black women: 8 (4 were celebrities)
Total number of Asian women: 2
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 3
Total number of fashion spreads: 2
Total number of black women: 0
Total number of Asian women: 0
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 0
Elle
Total number of ads: 161
Total number of black women: 6 (1 celeb, 1 "real woman")
Total number of Asian women: 1
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 3 (1 celebrity)
Total number of fashion spreads: 3
Total number of black women: 0
Total number of Asian women: 0
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 0
Cosmo
Total number of ads: 103
Total number of black women: 3 (Budweiser, Dove, Lee Jeans)
Total number of Asian women: 0
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 1 (Levi's)
Total number of fashion spreads: 2
Total number of black women: 1 (Beyonce)
Total number of Asian women: 0
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 0
Total number of beauty spreads: 2
Total number of black women: 2 (1 model, 1 Rihanna)
Total number of Asian women: 0
Total number of Hispanic women: 1 (Christina Milian)
Total number of women of ambiguous race: 0
So, what have we learnt?
Just as fashion art director Frank de Jesus said, “It is unfortunate that a white girl with blond hair is still the ideal of beauty.” 7
While some insiders contest that the fashion industry discriminates against women of color, others say it’s a designer’s artistic right not to use women of color in a fashion show. 8 To some designers and casting directors, if their shows are not ethnically diverse, they blame modeling agencies that supply the models because they cannot find black or Asian girls. 9 Carole White, one of the top modeling agents says “a black girl has to be perfect to get work,'. 'The bookers are told: "Don't send any ethnic girls." I showed a picture of a new black girl to an agent in Milan, and he actually recoiled. He said: "We don't have black girls in Milan. It's impossible."[i] According to Models.com, only a few top New York agencies represent more than two black, Latina or Asian models. 10 The fact that so few agencies hiring women of color is not an aesthetic issue but an employment issue. 11 “There’s a fine line between artistic vision and discrimination,” says Anna Park, regional attorney for the Los Angeles district attorney’s office of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), “If a designer chooses to define a certain vision as all white or all black, you run the risk of violating Title VII of the Civil Rights Acts of 1964.” 12 In addition to the lack of ethnically diverse models, is also the issue that minority models don’t make as much money as their white counterparts. White states, “even Naomi Campbell didn’t make money like the white girls did; she was always offered less.”[ii]
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits employment discrimination on the basis of race. 13 Like other protected categories, such as age and sex, race is closely associated with, if not largely defined by, certain physical characteristics. 14 Disfavoring a particular aspect of looks has a disproportionate impact on any racial or cultural group that commonly displays that feature. 15 In the case against Abercrombie & Fitch —a company that tried to define "classic American style" as “virtually all white”16— setting a race-based quota could be viewed as discrimination according to EEOC regulations. 17 "If it appears you only want white people, that can be viewed as discrimination." 18
The race discrimination claim set forth in the A&F case was not novel. 19 An early unnamed E.E.O.C. decision from the airline industry similarly illustrates how easily employment policies utilizing permissible looks-based selection criteria may slip into impermissible race discrimination. 20 The African American plaintiff was denied employment after an interviewer described her as “unattractive” with “large lips.” 21 The court found that this constituted illegal race discrimination because “a substantial factor” in the airline’s refusal to hire her was the size of her lips, a race-linked physical trait. 22
Casting agent Jennifer Starr, who is also a judge on Bravo's "Make Me a Supermodel" and works for, among others, Ralph Lauren, thinks the problem is because of the modeling agencies.
"It's not the designers' fault ... at least the designers I work for," she says. "Ralph Lauren, especially, is constantly asking me why there aren't more African-American models he can put in his show." The agencies are seemingly not looking for non-white models. [iii]
While a significant part of the blame lies with agencies, someone says it’s the designer’s responsibility to establish ethnic diversity and “push the envelope and cast many kinds of girls.”23
Godeliv Van den Brandt, a biracial model of Belgian and Congolese heritage, says black models are used much less often than whites, and usually only when there is an “inspiration” such as an African-themed style of clothing. 24
A judge on “America’s Next Top Model, says “years ago, runways were almost dominated by black girls,” referring to runway shows in the 1970’s. “Now some people are not interested in the vision of the black girl unless they’re doing a jungle theme and they can put her in a grass skirt and diamonds and hand her a spear.”[iv]
It reminds me of an article in Women’s Wear Daily about Miu Miu’s new ad campaign.
“ Meanwhile, Prada has tapped three Asian celebrities for the Miu Miu fall ad campaign – women the company describes as 'strong' and 'warrior dolls', who simultaneously represent a futuristic vision mixed with the depth and wisdom of ancient custom and culture.”25
Chinese actress and singer Zhou Xun, Chinese actress Dong Jie and Japanese model Lina Ohta were photographed by Inez Van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin at the Lapérouse restaurant in Paris, where Miuccia Prada staged her fall show. 26 Why can’t women of color just be regular human beings? Why do Asian have to represent warriors or geishas or ancient wisdom?
The April 2008 Vogue cover photo garnered criticism for its portrayal of African-American basketball player LeBron James with supermodel Gisele Bündchen. LeBron James is the first black man to appear on the cover of Vogue. [a] In the photo, James, dressed in black athletic gear, appears to be screaming (or roaring, as some contend) while holding Bündchen in one arm. Many of the disapproving viewed the cover photo as perpetuating the stereotype of the black man as a wild savage beast obsessed with white women, comparing it to King Kong movie posters and a war propaganda poster that featured an ape-like beast holding a white women. Some noted the similarities between Bündchen’s silk bias-cut dress and the dresses worn by the women in the earlier posters. [b]
In contrast, other analysts who did not view the Vogue cover as racist argued that Bündchen appears quite happy juxtaposed with the damsel in distress, and James’ face was meant to be an expression of his athleticism, not savagery. LeBron James expressed approval of the photo, saying that he was just showing “a little emotion.” [c]
When New York Fashion Week ushered in its most recent lines, Diane von Furstenberg and Baby Phat were among the few lines to use an equal racial mix of models. 27 At least half of the models used for Baby Phat, which featured Kimora Lee Simmons’ urban designs, were black or Asian models. 28 Diane von Furstenberg opened their shows with a black model. In fact, von Furstenberg closed her show with the opening girl, too. 29
Of course, still a lot of that has to do with the lack of diversity within the fashion industry. 30 Agency owner Bethann Hardison hosted a forum before New York Fashion Week to discuss the absence of models of color on the runways and in the pages of fashion magazines. 31
In the United Kingdom, Dee Doocey, a member of the London Assembly and chair of the Economic Development, Culture, Sport, and Tourism Committee, has announced plans to host a meeting on diversity in the fashion industry. Doocey, a former fashion company director, intends to invite designers, modeling agencies, politicians and groups that campaign for racial equality. [d] Around the time of Doocey’s announcement in October 2007, British designer Vivienne Westwood called the fashion industry “racist” and especially criticized magazine editors, saying they should be forced to meet a quota of non-white models. [e]
According to statistics of New York Fashion Week '08's 103 runway shows, there were over 2,000 opportunities for a model to appear. “Of these, women of color (meaning black, Asian or noticeably non-white Hispanic) were used 298 times. An Asian model was used 124 times, a black model was used 112 times, and a Hispanic model was used 62 times.”
"The runways were 88% white or European."
"Of the women of color, the majority were Asian."
"41% Asian; 38% black; 21% Latina."
Black models were used 5% of the time. (Not 5% of all models were black)[v]
In the last few years there have been a noticeable increase in the number of Asian models, designers and executives in the industry (for example, Lv Yan, Du Juan, Thakoon Panichgul, Peter Som, Doo-Ri Chung, Derek Lam, Phillip Lim, and Benjamin Cho have all sprung onto the scene.) 32 Of course, designers like Vera Wang, Yeohlee Teng, Anna Sui and Vivienne Tam had already helped pave the way. 33
And there are a handful of black models who have cemented their positions on the scene (Chanel Iman Robinson, Naomi Campbell, Veronica Webb, Tyra Banks, Beverly Peele, Karen Alexander, Gisele Bündchen) 34 Also, a minority of designers and models, like Campbell, who has promised to start a modeling agency in Kenya to redress the imbalance, have taken the issue in their own hands. 35
Regardless of whether it is the modeling agencies or the fashion designers to blame for the lack of diversity in runway shows, the most recent being New York Fashion Week shows, models of color who have actually broken ground in their own right and achieved international model status are doing their own part to increase diversity and expand traditional notions of beauty. Awareness and acknowledge of the issue is key. After Tyson Beckford, a world renowned male black model attended NY Fashion Week shows, he had one question: “What happened to all the black people on the runway?” He then commented, “There are no blacks on the cats.”
1 Naomi Campbell also noted “Women of color are not a trend. That’s the bottom line.”
2
When society appears steadfast in its refusal to move forward and embrace new conceptualizations of beauty through ethnic diversity, educational movements are key to eradicating old stereotypes and cultivating expanding notions of attractiveness. Former black 1960s model Bethann Hardison has been especially diligent in hosting panel discussions. Her events, including one titled “The Lack of the Black Image in Fashion Today,” have drawn over 500 people, including models, casting directors, and representative from modeling agencies.
3 Hardison was honored at New York Fashion Week Fall '09 by Nigerian Newspaper This Day, which was showing its African Fashion Collective. The newspaper's CEO presented Hardison with its first-ever Icon of Style Award, for all the work she has done to "shatter racial barriers in fashion." Hardison graciously accepted her award and reminded the crowd that the fight for more diversity in America's fashion industry was an ongoing battle. The fact that This Day was able to come to New York to show its African Fashion Collective during Fashion Week was an indication of the progress that was being made. Ultimately Hardison concludes, “I'm not trying to tell anyone what to do.” Rather, “I'm just trying to raise consciousness. We can make a change just by being here.”
4
Speaking of change, some fashion insiders wonder if the recent election of our country's first black president will help spur the industry to diversify. According to the New York Times, model Marcus Lloyd, a 22 year old from Dallas, was told by his agent that the election of President Obama would create more work for black models. Additionally, Italian Vogue's Editor, Franca Sozzani, admitted that much of her inspiration for the magazine's all-black July 2008 Issue came from her fascination with the Obama campaign. However, it may the other Obama in the White House who ultimately has the largest effect on the fashion industry. There has been an overwhelming amount of media attention focused on the wardrobe of First Lady, Michelle Obama. On January 22, 2009, Women's Wear Daily published a story which included comments from Amnau Eele, co-founder of Black Artists Association criticizing Michelle Obama for not choosing to be dressed by a black designer for the inaugural festivities. Eele was quoted saying, "[i]f you are going to have Isabel Toledo do the Inauguration dress, and Jason Wu do the evening gown, why not have Kevan Hall, B Michael, Stephen Burrows or any of the other black designers do something too?" Bethann Hardison, despite her advocacy for more ethnic diversity in the fashion industry, spoke out against Eele's statement. She noted that "you don't wear a designer because they are just black, you wear them because they are great." One of the designers mentioned by Eele, B Michael, was quick to issue a statement distancing himself from the controversy. He believed that the criticism of the First Lady was "unfair". However, he also went on to say that "[a]s a designer of color, I would encourage the fashion industry, editors and media to lead the way and be more inclusive. True change in America is going to be a collective effort...As an American designer, I am excited that Michelle Obama, in her role as the First Lady, will heighten the awareness of American style, which resonates into business and jobs in the fashion industry."
Whether influenced by the Obamas or not, New York Fashion Week was more diverse in its Fall 2009 shows than it has been in previous years. There were 116 labels that held shows this year, creating 3,697 spots in runway and presentations lineups. Of those 3,697 spots, 668 were given to models of color. This is equivalent to just over 18%, and is 6% higher than last year, and much better than Fall 2007 when a third of designers used no models of color at all.
The chart above shows the breakdown of models of color seen on the runways this year. The yellow slice represents the percentage of Black models, red represents Asian models, blue represents Latina models, and green is all other ethnicities. The following big name designers had shows with high percentages of models of color: 3.1 Philip Lim with 21% of spots to models with color, Badgely Mishka with 33%, Diane von Furstenberg with 31%, Isaac Mizrahi with 23%, Jason Wu with 29%, Malandrino with 26%, Oscar de la Renta with 49%, Ralph Lauren with 29%, and Yigal Azrouel with 39%.
In a February 2008 article in the British publication The Independent, author Robert Verkaik made the case for models to bring employment claims for racial discrimination. He opines that models should not be and are not excluded from the protection afforded by the Race Relations Act. Indeed, that models work in an industry where beauty is supposedly in the eye of the beholder does not bar them from bringing a race discrimination claim against their employers, the designers who hire them. A model has a prima facie claim for race discrimination when he or she is repeatedly refused work or paid less than a white colleague.
Traditionally, black and Asian models have been unwilling to speak out for fear that they will jeopardize their careers. Indeed, an agency may move to defeat a racial discrimination claim by using subjective or contextual justifications for their choice of model. However, as Verkaik points out, often the bare statistics relating to modeling assignments will reveal a discriminatory trend. Verkaik seems to think that a model can easily make his or her discrimination case, because the model merely needs to show "that a white competitor engaged in similar kinds of work is getting more work". He also points out that ethnic minority models may also be able to bring a claim for "indirect racism" by showing that the established practices of their industry have a discriminatory bearing on their work patterns and pay, and that it is not necessary to prove intent to discriminate.
If only it were this simple. How would a plaintiff show that a white model engaged in “similar kinds of work” as the plaintiff, was actually getting more work? The most salient issue is how to define or show that the model-plaintiff and the white model(s) engaged in "similar work". What is similar work – that the plaintiff and the white model(s) were going for the exact same clothing campaigns for, say, Versace? Or the wronged model and the competitor were both jeans modes, cosmetics models, or runway models generally? Is the scope of similarity limited to specific modeling jobs or can it be expanded to consider general types of modeling work? It seems difficult to compare modeling work, much less to prove that one model is equally suited for the job as another. And even if it is that simple to bring a racial discrimination claim for minority models, who would be brave enough to actually bring a claim? At least for now, the responsibility to encourage diversity in modeling lies squarely in the designers and in the fashion editors and magazine, that convey to us what beauty is.
Kudos goes to Italian Vogue, for its July 2008 issue featuring black models and topics related to black women in the arts and entertainment. In a big, bold way, Vogue brought to the forefront the pressing issue of diversity in the fashion industry. The magazine sold out quickly, and generated press and attention to the lack of diversity in fashion. Renowned fashion photographer Steven Meisel had about 100 pages for the photographs he took for the issue, and below are just some of the images.
The Italian Vogue cover
Naomi Campbell
Tyra Banks
Liya Kebede
Sessilee Lopez
Chanel Iman
Borrowing from the Obama slogan, “Change we can believe in has to happen.”
Beauty comes in all colors.
1 Aysha Hussain, Is the 42Fashion Industry Racist? Supermodel Says Yes,2007, http://www.diversityinc.com/public/2497.cfm
2 Id.
3 Christine Kearney, NY fashion runways lack black and Asian models, Reuters, 2007, http://www.reuters.com/article/lifestyleMolt/idUSN1036539720070911?pageNumber=2&sp=true
4 Leslie Seaton, America's Next Top Model: J. Alexander Talks About Fashion Week's Lack of Diversity, 2007, http://www.buddytv.com/articles/americas-next-top-model/americas-next-top-model-j-alex-10878.aspx
5 Kearney, supra note 3.
6 Kenya Hunt, The Great White Way, Metro New York, 2007, http://ny.metro.us/metro/entertainment/article/The_great_white_way/9899.html
7 Kearney, supra note 3.
8 Hussain, supra note 1.
9 Id.
10 www. models.com/agencies
11 Hussain, supra note 1.
12 Id.
13 42 U.S.C. 2000(e) (2000)
14 See E.E.O.C. Dec. No. 70-90, 1969 WL 2903, 152 (1969) Physical attributes like skin color, build, and the size and shape of facial features signal a person’s “ancestry,” as they developed in response to the demands of various world climates. Nancy Etcoff, Survival of the Prettiest: The Science of Beauty 134-35 (2000). Differences in facial features, such as jaw and brow size and shape, distance between the eyes, and nose protrusion, also help people distinguish between the sexes. However, racial definitions are predominantly understood as “arbitrary social creatures,” not real, inherent biological differences. Angela P. Harries, Equality Trouble: Sameness and Difference in Twentieth-Century Race Law, 88 Cal. L. Rev. 1923, 1982, 1988 (2000). As a practical matter, social constructions of a given race often are defined largely by the physical characteristics thought to comprise it – most commonly skin color, but potentially including other physical attributes such as height and facial characteristics. See Craig v. County of Los Angeles, 626 F.2d 659, 667 (9th Cir. 1980) (holding employer’s minimum height standards discriminated against Mexican-Americans, whose average height tends to be less than other racial groups). Some rationales for racial stereotypes have their roots in Western anxiety toward the color black in symbolic contexts. See Kimberle Williams Crenshaw, Race, Reform, and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Antidiscrimination Law, 101 Harv. L. Rev. 1331, 1372 n.153 (1988) (citing writings on the relationship between racial stereotypes and real or perceived differences, i.e., in color, to which value is attached).
15 See Craig, 626 F.2d at 666 n.6 (finding discrimination in violation of Title VII where sheriff’s department imposed minimum height requirements for deputies that eliminated 41% of Mexican-American males but only 14% of all other males.)
16 Third Amended Class Action Complaint, Gonzalez v. Abercrombie & Fitch Stores, Inc. (N.D. Cal. June 10, 2004) (No. 03-2817 SI) (hereinafter Plaintiffs’ Complaint). The suit was filed in June 2003 in federal district court in California and settled in November 2004.
17 E.E.O.C. Dec. No. 70-90, 1969 WL 2903, 1 (1969)
18 Plaintiff’s Complaint, supra note 16, at 6
19 Julie Tamaki, Judge Accepts Abercrombie Plan to Settle Hiring Lawsuits, L.A. Times, Nov. 17, 2004, at C2. Interview by Tavis Smiley with Kimberly West-Faulcon, National Public Radio (Dec. 9, 2003). West-Faulcon, one of the Gonzalez plaintiffs’ attorneys, characterized the Gonzalez suit as a “simple” race discrimination claim not invoking issues of looks-based discrimination or a company’s right to market to target audiences.
20 E.E.O.C. Dec. No. 70-90, 1969 WL 2903, 1 (1969) The airline prescreened prospective flight attendant strictly according to requirements for “height, weight, and other measurements.” Interviewers assessed prospective employees on dimensions including “complexion,” “make-up,” “hands,” “teeth,” “hair style,” “posture,” “appearance,” “poise,” and “attitude.”
21 Id.
22 Id.
23 Philippe Brutus, agent with Art+Commerce, http://www.artandcommerce.com
24 Hussain, supra note 1.
25 Women’s Wear Daily, Miu Miu’s new ad campaign, June 23rd, 2006.
26 Id.
27 Carmen Van Kerckhove, Why The Fashion Industry Desperately Needs Some Diversity, 2006, http://www.mixedmediawatch.com/2006/07/07/why-the-fashion-industry-desperately-needs-some-diversity/
28 Id.
29 Hussain, supra note 1.
30 Kerckhove, supra note 27.
31 Magali & Claire, Diversity and Responsibility in Fashion, 2008, http://5resolutions.blogspot.com/2008/01/diversity-and-responsibility-in-fashion.html
32 Agyness Deyn, WWD: Little Diversity in Fashion: African-Americans Bemoan Their Absence in Industry, 2007, http://acrylicstetson.wordpress.com/2007/09/17/wwd-little-diversity-in-fashion-african-americans-bemoan-their-absence-in-industry
33 Id.
34 Kerckhove, supra note 27.
35 Kearney, supra note 3.
___________________________________
[a] “Vogue cover with LeBron stirs up controversy” http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/23795226
[b] Wesley Morris, “Monkey Business: So is that Vogue Cover Racist or Not?”, Slate, 31 March 2008, http://www.slate.com/id/2187797/; “Is Vogue’s “LeBron Kong” Cover Offensive?” http://jezebel.com/368655/is-vogues-lebron-kong-cover-offensive
[c] Branson Wright, “LeBron James’ Vogue Cover Draws Criticism”, Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 March 2008, http://www.cleveland.com/cavs/plaindealer/index.ssf?/base/sports/120626264122660.xml&coll=2
[d] Emily Dugan, “Modeling agencies blamed for racist culture”, The Independent, 10 October 2007, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/modelling-agencies-blamed-for-racist-culture-396454.html
[e] Roya Nikkhah, “Dame Vivienne attacks ‘racist’ magazines”, Telegraph, 15 October 2007, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1566142/Dame-Vivienne-attacks-%27racist%27-magazines.html
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